Although mask-wearing can be considered a straightforward strategy to prevent thespread of the COVID-19 virus, lived experiences demonstrate that the meaning of mask-wearingis complex. Michael, a Chinese student studying at New York University, shares a personal experience, "People on the street call me 'coronavirus' when they see me wearing a mask" (Ma &Zhan, 2020, p.10). Unfortunately, thousands of Asians living in North America have had similar experiences, with a spike of incidences of anti-Asian racism, xenophobia and hate crimes since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ma & Zhan, 2020; Gover et al., 2020). We argue that the interplay of history, power, and culture shapes mask-wearing interpretations and, thus, furthers the stigmatization of Asian communities in North America.
Erving Goffman (1963) defines stigma as "'an attribute that is deeply discrediting,' which reduces the stigmatized 'from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one'" (as cited inMa & Zhan, 2020, p.5). In other words, stigmatization occurs when one is perceived to have a discrediting attribute associated with a "spoiled identity" (Ali, 2008; Ma & Zhan, 2020). In NorthAmerica, the discrediting attribute can be considered a face mask, and the "spoiled identity" canbe considered sickness or infection (Ma & Zhan, 2020). So why does wearing a face mask disproportionately stigmatize Asian people?
The impact of history on the meaning of mask-wearing
The fear of contagious diseases has been dealt with throughout history by blaming the"other" (Ma & Zhan, 2020; Gover et al., 2020). As a result, minority groups within NorthAmerica, most often those of Asian ethnicity, have been conflated with infection (Gover et al. 2020). This is due to North America's century-long perpetration of the yellow peril myth, or the racist belief that Asian people are dangerous to Western society (Ali, 2008; Ma & Zhan, 2020).For example, media coverage during the 2003 outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome(SARS) in Toronto racialized mask-wearing by predominantly using images of Asian people donning face masks to report on the outbreak, despite how mask-wearing in Toronto was uncommon at the time (Ali, 2008). Thus, the face mask became a "stigma symbol" depicting a"spoiled identity"— having the SARS infection (Ali, 2008). Consequently, individuals who possessed either attribute, 'Asian ethnicity' or 'mask-wearing,' were likely stigmatized duringSARS, disproportionately impacting those with intersecting identities.
The impact of power on the meaning of mask-wearing
Contemporary sources of power reinforce the historically stigmatizing narratives aboutAsian communities. During the first few months of the COVID-19 pandemic, powerful organizations gave conflicting reviews about mask-wearing. For example, the United State'sCentre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO)only recommended mask-wearing for those who had symptoms of COVID-19 (Ma & Zhan,2020). In doing so, an association was made between mask-wearing and the stigmatized identity of being infectious. Simultaneously, political leaders in society, such as Donald Trump and Mike Pompeo, conflated Asian ethnicity with the virus – using terms such as the "Chinese virus,""Wuhan virus," and "Kung flu," rather than using the WHO's term "COVID-19" (Gover et al.,2020; Ma & Zhan, 2020). Thus, power furthers the stigmatization of Asian people through racism and the touting of masks as an item only used by the sick.
[Image Source: New York Post. (2020). First case of coronavirus confirmed in manhattan. Twitter.https://twitter.com/nypost/status/1234288662856245248/photo/1]
Furthermore, media coverage solidified this stigmatization by visually associating images of Asian people wearing masks with articles about COVID-19. This is exemplified through image 1.0, which the New York Post (2020) used on a popular social media platform, Twitter, to report on Manhattan's first case of COVID-19 (Burton, 2020). The photo published was of anAsian man wearing a mask from an entirely different part of the city, despite the case being a woman in her 30s with an unknown ethnicity (New York Post, 2020; Burton, 2020). It is highly likely that the media’s influence on views of mask-wearing contributes to how "36% of AsianAmericans say they worry a great deal or a fair amount that other people might be suspicious of them because of their ethnicity if they wear a mask" (Pew Research Center, 2020, p. 8). These lived experiences demonstrate how power plays a significant role in the stigmatization of Asian communities in North America by shaping mask-wearing perceptions.
The impact of culture on the meaning of mask-wearing
In North America, differing cultural ideologies influence perceptions and receptiveness to mask-wearing practices. The most common ideology within Asian communities is collectivism,which contributes to the cultural perception that mask-wearing is a civic duty used to protect others from contracting a potential pathogen (Scerri & Grech, 2020). Thus, Asian communities' outlook on mask-wearing leads to a higher acceptance of the practice, regardless of health status.In contrast, North America can be defined as predominantly individualistic, emphasizing protecting oneself rather than others (Scerri & Grech, 2020). Since North America has historically associated mask-wearing with infection, this emphasis on self-protection leads to fear of those who wear masks and, subsequently, anti-Asian xenophobia (Gover et al., 2020).Additionally, mask wearing is generally percieved as infringing on personal freedoms and bodily autonomy within individualistic culture, which contributes to mask resistance and the idea that mask-wearing is abnormal (Ma & Zhan, 2020). Since collectivist ideologies normalize mask-wearing, the individualistic view that mask-wearing is abnormal furthers the stigmatization of Asian communities within North America. Therefore, it is evident that culture influences society's understandings of mask-wearing.
Conclusion
A promising future? As the COVID-19 pandemic endures, mandatory mask-wearing policies have been and continue to be implemented in various regions within North America. An analysis of the context of history, power and culture suggests that stigma arises from constructing the "spoiled identity"of being sick as synonymous with Asian ethnicity and mask-wearing. However, mandatory mask-wearing policies enforce mask-wearing among all ethnicities, even if one is not sick.Subsequently, mandatory mask-wearing policies may normalize the practice within NorthAmerica and thus, may contribute to the de-stigmatization of Asian communities within the context of contagious diseases. So, while mask-wearing, at first glance, seems like a simple way to stop the spread of COVID-19, the practice is socially constructed by context and may changeover time and space, influencing the stigmatization of Asian communities in North America.
References
Ali, S. H. (2008). Stigmatized ethnicity, public health, and globalization. Canadian EthnicStudies, 40(3), 43-64. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2008.0002
Burton, N. (2020, March 6). Why Asians in masks should not be the “face” of the coronavirus.Vox. https://www.vox.com/identities/2020/3/6/21166625/coronavirus-photos-racism?fbclid=IwAR2vjIZbKz3fO_QfIRlRTv9T8eF_az_yw18eXxw6-XI-yzWsmse0XWxnMOA
Gover, A. R., Harper, S. B., & Langton, L. (2020). Anti-Asian hate crime during the COVID-19pandemic: Exploring the reproduction of inequality. American Journal of CriminalJustice, 45(4), 647-667. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.1007/s12103-020-09545-1
Ma, Y., & Zhan, N. (2020). To mask or not to mask amid the COVID-19 pandemic: howChinese students in America experience and cope with stigma. Chinese SociologicalReview, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/21620555.2020.1833712
Pew Research Center. (2020). Many Black and Asian Americans say they have experienceddiscrimination amid the COVID-19 outbreak. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/07/PSDT_07.01.20_racism.covid_Full.Report.pdf
Scerri, M., & Grech, V. (2020). To wear or not to wear? Adherence to face mask use during theCOVID-19 and Spanish influenza pandemics. Early Human Development, 1-4.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105253