Cultural values and behaviour are inextricably linked (Triandis, 1994). From the ways we greet one another to how a person feels valued and respected, the influence of one’s culture is weaved through the fabric of every interaction. When the Covid-19 pandemic quickly affected every country worldwide, norms changed. One of these major changes was mask enforcement to prevent the transmission of the virus. Interestingly, the response to this request differed depending on cultural values (Frey, Chen, & Presidente, 2020). Specifically, cultural values influence both individual and societal perceptions of mask-wearing, which, in turn, contributes to determining health outcomes and responses to masks.
For the average person, change is uncomfortable and challenging. This was highlighted by the responses of many when we were asked to alter so much of our behaviour to combat the pandemic, such as limiting contact with loved ones and covering our faces in grocery stores.Notably, individuals with certain cultural values were significantly more willing to adjust their habits according to public health guidelines, such as mask-wearing (Platteau & Verardi, 2020).For instance, a greater proportion of people in East Asian countries like Japan were willing to wear masks than in Western countries like the United States (Li et al., 2020). This may be partially attributable to masks already being commonplace to protect against illnesses and pollutants in East Asia (Li et al., 2020). However, East Asian countries also uphold collectivism as an important cultural value, whereas the United States is much more focused on individualism (Imada, 2012). In terms of mask-usage, in Japan, this manifests itself in people wanting to show solidarity, respect, and unity by wearing them (Biddlestone, Green, & Douglas, 2020). On the other hand, many people in the United States view masks as an attack on their individual freedoms (Aratani, 2020).
[Image source: Images: Los Angeles Times. (2020). Protesters hold signs during a demonstration against COVID-19related restrictions in Huntington Beach on May 9 [Photograph].https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-06-20/refusing-to-wear-a-mask-brainless-selfish]
A similar theme emerged in the societal and governmental spheres. In many ways, the actions of a country’s leader can be indicative of cultural values. In democratic countries,without appeasing a large proportion of voters, the leader would be unable to retain power.Accordingly, President Trump’s initial resistance to mask-wearing highlights that a significant proportion of the country also likely opposed masks. To an even greater extent, the way Covid-19 risks and the usefulness of masks were initially minimized by US government agencies like the CDC, despite evidence indicating otherwise, clearly demonstrates that values of individual freedom play a major role in influencing narratives surrounding masks in the United States.
Conversely, Japan’s government messaging and policies around mask usage were clear from the start: every person was to wear a mask in public as there is evidence to suggest that they may prevent the spread of Covid-19 (Rich, 2020). This reflects their collectivist mentality which prioritizes the wellbeing of all. Beyond the pandemic, it is also clear that Japanese culture values collectivism. For instance, the primary religions practiced in Japan, Shintoism andBuddhism, emphasize respect for all beings (Evason, 2016). Thus, it is reasonable to speculate that this deeply valued theme of respect for others has translated to behaviour during the pandemic, such as mask-wearing.
[Image source: Reuters. (2020). People in protective face masks walk on the street amid the coronavirus outbreak. Tokyo, Japan, November 19, 2020 [Photograph].https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/11/22/japans-covid-19-cases-hit-record-high-for-fourth-day]
While it seems clear that culture contributes to perceptions of masks through this pandemic,some scholars disagree. One researcher, Matthews (2020), cautions against accepting cultural factors as a primary determinant of Japan’s Covid-19 successes, proposing instead that“evidence-based” explanations, such as testing capacity, are required. This demonstrates a hesitation to analyze behaviour from a sociological perspective and attribute positive pandemic behaviours, such as mask-wearing, to cultural values.
In terms of outcomes, countries that value collectivism, such as Japan, have fared better than individualist states like the US. In fact, as of the end of November 2020, the US confirmed case rate was more than 40x that of Japan, despite Japan’s much smaller geographic region that should facilitate greater transmission (WHO, 2020). While many factors intersect to contribute to overall population outcomes during this crisis, a culture that rejects notions of unity and togetherness during a global pandemic seems uniquely positioned to experience much worse health outcomes than one that embraces public health measures.
Accordingly, cultural values have influenced the acceptance and resistance to masks. In considering the sentiments of many, but certainly not all, US citizens, it is clear that cultural values of freedom play a role in the resistance to masks. This is summed up in the following statement by Amelia Bennett, a woman from Tampa, Florida: “I will not comply with mask mandates, and I urge every red-blooded freedom-loving American remaining to do the same”(Cebello, 2020). Evidently, people like Ms. Bennett view mask mandates as an attack on personal liberties. In contrast, Japan’s cultural values of social harmony have led to the early and wide acceptance of face masks. In one article, the author notes that there is no public discourse surrounding masks limiting freedoms in Japan (Acar, 2020). The clear polarity between the response of resisting masks demonstrated by many US citizens versus the acceptance of masks by the overwhelming majority of Japanese citizens, at least publicly,highlights that cultural values strongly influence perceptions of, and responses to masks.
In considering the many ways cultural values shape societies, identities, and behaviour, it comes as no surprise that culture has plausibly influenced the ways in which various countries have responded to the Covid-19 pandemic. In particular, Japan, a collectivist country, has largely embraced masks, whereas the United States, a country much more focused on individualism, has seen significant resistance to mask mandates. While it would be inaccurate to attribute all aspects of the pandemic response and outcomes to culture, it is clear that cultural values play a direct or indirect role in influencing perceptions of mask-wearing during the Covid-19 pandemic. Consequently, considering how culture influences behaviour during the pandemic may help shape messaging to encourage pro-social behaviour, such as mask-wearing, and contribute to protecting the health of all.
References
Acar, A. (2020). Why do Japanese wear masks and why (some) Americans don’t. Maikoya.https://mai-ko.com/travel/culture-research/why-do-japanese-wear-masks-and-why-some-americans-dont/
Aratani, L. (2020, June 29). How did face masks become a political issue in America?. TheGuardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/29/face-masks-us-politics-coronavirus
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Douglas, K. (2020). Cultural orientation, powerlessness, belief in conspiracy theories, and intentions to reduce the spread of COVID-19. British Journal of Social Psychology.
Cebello, E. (2020, June 22). Requiring us to wear a mask infringes on our personal liberties.Tampa Bay Times. https://www.tampabay.com/opinion/2020/06/22/requiring-us-to-wear-a-mask-infringes-on-our-personal-liberties-letters/
Evason, N. (2016). Japanese culture. Cultural Atlas. https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/japanese-culture/japanese-culture-references#japanese-culture-references
Frey, C. B., Chen, C., & Presidente, G. (2020). Democracy, Culture, and Contagion: PoliticalRegimes and Countries Responsiveness to Covid-19. Covid Economics, 18, 1-20.
Imada, T. (2012). Cultural narratives of individualism and collectivism: A content analysis of textbook stories in the United States and Japan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,43(4), 576-591.
Li, T., Liu, Y., Li, M., Qian, X., & Dai, S. Y. (2020). Mask or no mask for COVID-19: A public health and market study. PloS one, 15(8), e0237691.
Matthews, J. (2020). “Cultural exceptionalism” in the global exchange of (mis) information around Japan’s responses to Covid-19. Media and Communication, 8(2), 448-451.
Platteau, J. P., & Verardi, V. (2020). How To Exit Covid-19 Lockdowns: Culture Matters. CEPR,Covid Economics, 23, 1-57.
Rich, M. (2020, June 6). Is the secret to Japan’s virus success right in front of its face?. The NewYork Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/world/asia/japan-coronavirus-masks.html
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. World Health Organization. (2020). WHO coronavirus disease (COVID-19) dashboard.WHO. https://covid19.who.int/